The Birth of Semantics
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.15173/jhap.v8i6.3970Abstract
We attempt here to trace the evolution of Frege’s thought about truth. What most frames the way we approach the problem is a recognition that hardly any of Frege’s most familiar claims about truth appear in his earliest work. We argue that Frege’s mature views about truth emerge from a fundamental re-thinking of the nature of logic instigated, in large part, by a sustained engagement with the work of George Boole and his followers, after the publication of Begriffsschrift and the appearance of critical reviews by members of the Boolean school.
References
Austin, J. L., 1950. “Truth.” Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society, Supplementary Volume 24: 111–28.
Bar-On, Dorit and Keith Simmons, 2007. “The use of force against deflationism: assertion and truth.” In Truth and Speech Acts: Studies in the Philosophy of Language, edited by Dirk Greimann and Geo Siegwart, pp. 61–89. New York: Routledge.
Beaney, Michael, 2007. “Frege’s use of function-argument analysis and his introduction of truth-values as objects.” Grazer Philosophische Studien 75: 93–123.
Boole, George, 1847. The Mathematical Analysis of Logic, Being an Essay Towards a Calculus of Deductive Reasoning. Cambridge: Macmillan, Barclay, & Macmillan.
———, 1854. An Investigation of the Laws of Thought. London: Macmillan and Co.
Boolos, George, 1975. “On second-order logic.” Journal of Philosophy 72: 509–27.
Brandom, Robert, 1994. Making It Explicit: Reasoning, Representing, and Discursive Commitment. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.
Bynum, Terrell Ward, 1972. “Editor’s introduction.” In Frege (1972), pp. 55–80.
Davidson, Donald, 1984. “Truth and meaning.” In Inquiries Into Truth and Interpretation, pp. 17–36. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Davidson, Donald, 1990. “The structure and content of truth.” Journal of Philosophy 87: 279–328.
———, 1996. “The folly of trying to define truth.” Journal of Philosophy 93: 263–78.
Dummett, Michael, 1978. “Truth.” In Truth and Other Enigmas, pp. 1–24. London: Duckworth.
———, 1981. Frege: Philosophy of Language, second edition. London: Duckworth.
———, 1991. The Logical Basis of Metaphysics. London: Duckworth.
———, 1993a. The Seas of Language. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
———, 1993b. “The source of the concept of truth.” In Dummett (1993a), pp. 188–201.
———, 1993c. “What is a theory of meaning? (II).” In Dummett (1993a), pp. 34–93.
Fine, Kit, 2007. Semantic Relationism. Oxford: Blackwell.
Frege, Gottlob, 1970. Translations from the Philosophical Writings of Gottlob Frege, second edition, edited by Peter Geach and Max Black. Oxford: Blackwell.
———, 1972. Conceptual Notation and Related Articles, translated and edited by Terrell Ward Bynum. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
———, 1979. Posthumous Writings, edited by Hans Hermes, Friedrich Kambartel, and Friedrich Kaulbach, translated by Peter Long and Roger White. Oxford: Basil Blackwell.
———, 1984. Collected Papers on Mathematics, Logic, and Philosophy, edited by Brian McGuiness. Oxford: Basil Blackwell.
———, 1997. The Frege Reader, edited by Michael Beaney. Oxford: Blackwell.
———, [AimCN] 1882. “On the aim of the conceptual notation.” Translated by Terrell Ward Bynum. In Frege (1972), pp. 90–100.
———, [Bg] 1879. “Begriffsschrift: A formula language modeled upon that of arithmetic, for pure thought.” Translated by Stefan Bauer-Mengelberg. In From Frege to Gödel: A Sourcebook in Mathematical Logic 1879–1931, edited by Jean van Heijenoort, pp. 5–82. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.
———, [BLC] 1880?. “Boole’s logical calculus and the concept-script.” In Frege (1979), pp. 9–46.
———, [BLF] 1882. “Boole’s logical formula-language and my concept-script.” In Frege (1979), pp. 47–52.
———, [CO] 1892. “On concept and object.” Translated by Peter Geach. In Frege (1984), pp. 182–94. Also in Frege (1997), pp. 181–93.
———, [CSM] 1892–95. “Comments on sense and meaning.” In Frege (1979), pp. 118–25. Also in Frege (1997), pp. 172–80.
———, [CT] 1923. “Compound thoughts.” Translated by Peter Geach and R. H. Stoothoff. In Frege (1984), pp. 390–406.
———, [FC] 1891. “Function and concept.” Translated by Peter Geach. In Frege (1984), pp. 137–56. Also in Frege (1997), pp. 130–48.
———, [FTA] 1885. “Formal theories of arithmetic.” Translated by E.-H. W. Kluge. In Frege (1984), pp. 112–21.
———, [Geo2] 1906. “On the foundations of geometry: Second series.” Translated by E.-H. W. Kluge. In Frege (1984), pp. 293–340.
———, [Gg] 2013. Basic Laws of Arithmetic, translated and edited by Philip A. Ebert and Marcus Rossberg. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
———, [Gl] 1953. The Foundations of Arithmetic, second, revised edition, translated by J. L. Austin. Oxford: Blackwell.
———, [IntLog] 1906. “Introduction to logic.” In Frege (1979), pp. 185–96; extracts in Frege (1997), pp. 293–98.
———, [Log79] 1879–1891. “Logic.” In Frege (1979), pp. 1–8.
———, [Log97] 1897. “Logic (1897).” In Frege (1979), pp. 126–51. Also in Frege (1997), pp. 227–50.
———, [MBLI] 1915. “My basic logical insights.” In Frege (1979), pp. 251–52. Also in Frege (1997), pp. 322–24.
———, [PCN] 1897. “On Mr. Peano’s conceptual notation and my own.” Translated by V. H. Dudman. In Frege (1984), pp. 234–48.
———, [PMC] 1980. Philosophical and Mathematical Correspondence, edited by Gottfried Gabriel, Hans Hermes, Friedrich Kambartel, Christian Thiel, Albert Veraart, and Brian McGuinness, translated by Hans Kaal. Oxford: Blackwell.
———, [Schr] 1895. “A critical elucidation of some points in E. Schröder, Vorlesungen über die Algebra der Logik.” In Frege (1984), pp. 210–28.
———, [SM] 1892. “On sense and meaning.” Translated by Max Black. In Frege (1984), pp. 157–77. Also in Frege (1997), pp. 151–71.
———, [Tht] 1918. “Thoughts.” Translated by Peter Geach and R. H. Stoothoff. In Frege (1984), pp. 351–72. Also in Frege (1997), pp. 325–45.
Geach, P. T., 1965. “Assertion.” Philosophical Review 74: 449–65.
Greimann, Dirk, 2015. “Frege’s performative argument against truth relativism.” Journal for the History of Analytical Philosophy 3(2): 1–17.
Heck, Richard Kimberly, 2012a. Reading Frege’s Grundgesetze. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Originally published under the name “Richard G. Heck, Jr”.
———, 2012b. “Solving Frege’s puzzle.” Journal of Philosophy 109: 74. Originally published under the name “Richard G. Heck, Jr”.
———, 2014. “Intuition and the substitution argument.” Analytic Philosophy 55: 1–30. Originally published under the name “Richard G. Heck, Jr”.
———, 2019. “Formal arithmetic before Grundgesetze.” In Essays on Frege’s Basic Laws of Arithmetic, edited by Philip A. Ebert and Marcus Rossberg, pp. 497–537. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Heck, Richard Kimberly and Robert C. May, 2006. “Frege’s contribution to philosophy of language.” In The Oxford Handbook of Philosophy of Language, edited by Barry C. Smith and Ernest Lepore, pp. 3–39. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Originally published under the name “Richard G. Heck, Jr”.
———, 2011. “The composition of thoughts.” Noûs 45: 126–66. Originally published under the name “Richard G. Heck, Jr”.
———, 2013. “The function is unsaturated.” In The Oxford Handbook of the History of Analytic Philosophy, edited by Michael Beaney, pp. 825–50. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Originally published under the name “Richard G. Heck, Jr”.
———, 2018. “Truth in Frege.” In The Oxford Handbook of Truth, edited by Michael Glanzberg, pp. 193–215. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Kemp, Gary, 1995. “Truth in Frege’s ‘law of truth’.” Synthese 105: 31–51.
Kneale, William and Martha Kneale, 1962. The Development of Logic. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Kremer, Michael, 2010. “Sense and reference: The origins and development of the distinction.” In The Cambridge Companion to Frege, edited by Michael Potter and Thomas Ricketts, pp. 220–92. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Larson, Richard and Gabriel Segal, 1995. Knowledge of Meaning. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press.
Linnebo, Øystein, 2003. “Frege’s conception of logic: From Kant to Grundgesetze.” Manuscrito 26: 235–52.
MacColl, Hugh, 1877. “The calculus of equivalent statements and integration limits.” Proceedings of the London Mathematical Society 9: 9–20.
———, 1880. “Symbolical reasoning.” Mind 5: 45–60.
Marcus, Ruth Barcan, 1995. “Modalities and intensional languages.” In Modalities: Philosophical Essays, pp. 3–23. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
May, Robert C., 2001. “Frege on identity statements.” In Semantic Interfaces: Reference, Anaphora and Aspect, edited by Carlo Cecchetto, Gennaro Chierchia, and Maria Teresa Guasti, pp. 1–50. Stanford: CSLI Publications.
———, 2008. “The invariance of sense.” Journal of Philosophy 103: 111–44.
———, 2012. “What Frege’s theory of identity is not.” Thought 1: 41–48.
———, 2018. “Logic as science.” In Eva Picardi on Language, Analysis and History, edited by Annalisa Coliva, Paolo Leonardi, and Sebastiano Moruzzi, pp. 113–60. London: Palgrave Macmillan.
Moore, G. E., 1953. Some Main Problems of Philosophy. London: Allen and Unwin.
Pedriali, Walter B., 2017. “The logical significance of assertion: Frege on the essence of logic.” Journal for the History of Analytical Philosophy 5(8): 1–22.
Picardi, Eva, 1996. “Frege’s anti-psychologism.” In Frege: Importance and Legacy, edited by Matthias Schirn, pp. 307–29. New York: de Gruyter.
Post, Emil, 1921. “Introduction to a general theory of elementary propositions.” American Journal of Mathematics 43: 163–85.
Proops, Ian, 1997. “The early Wittgenstein on logical assertion.” Philosophical Topics 25: 121–44.
Quine, W. V., 1953. “On what there is.” In From a Logical Point of View, pp. 1–18. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.
———, 1970. Philosophy of Logic, first edition. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Ricketts, Thomas, 1996. “Logic and truth in Frege.” Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society, Supplementary Volume 70: 121–40.
———, 1997. “Frege’s 1906 foray into meta-logic.” Philosophical Topics 25: 169–88.
Russell, Bertrand, 1903. The Principles of Mathematics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Schröder, Ernst, 1877. Der Operationskreis des Logikkalküls. Leipzig: Teubner.
———, 1880. “Review of Frege’s Conceptual Notation.” In Frege (1972), pp. 218–32.
Strawson, P. F., 1950. “Truth.” Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society, Supplementary Volume 24: 129–56.
Tarski, Alfred, 1956. “The concept of truth in formalized languages.” In Logic, Semantics, and Metamathematics, edited by John Corcoran, pp. 152–278. Indianapolis: Hackett.
Textor, Mark, 2010. “Frege on judging as acknowledging the truth.” Mind 119: 615–55.
Venn, John, 1894. Symbolic Logic, second edition. London: MacMillan.
———, 1880. “Review of Frege’s Conceptual Notation.” Mind : 297. Reprinted in Frege (1972), pp. 234–35.
Wiggins, David, 1980. “What would be a substantial theory of truth?” In Philosophical Subjects, edited by Zaak van Straaten, pp. 189–221. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Wittgenstein, Ludwig, 1961. Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.
———, 1979a. Notebooks: 1914–1916, second edition, edited by G. H. von Wright and G. E. M. Anscombe. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
———, 1979b. Wittgenstein’s Lectures, Cambridge, 1932–1935: From the Notes of Alice Ambrose and Margaret Macdonald, edited by Alice Ambrose. Amherst, NY: Prometheus.
Bar-On, Dorit and Keith Simmons, 2007. “The use of force against deflationism: assertion and truth.” In Truth and Speech Acts: Studies in the Philosophy of Language, edited by Dirk Greimann and Geo Siegwart, pp. 61–89. New York: Routledge.
Beaney, Michael, 2007. “Frege’s use of function-argument analysis and his introduction of truth-values as objects.” Grazer Philosophische Studien 75: 93–123.
Boole, George, 1847. The Mathematical Analysis of Logic, Being an Essay Towards a Calculus of Deductive Reasoning. Cambridge: Macmillan, Barclay, & Macmillan.
———, 1854. An Investigation of the Laws of Thought. London: Macmillan and Co.
Boolos, George, 1975. “On second-order logic.” Journal of Philosophy 72: 509–27.
Brandom, Robert, 1994. Making It Explicit: Reasoning, Representing, and Discursive Commitment. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.
Bynum, Terrell Ward, 1972. “Editor’s introduction.” In Frege (1972), pp. 55–80.
Davidson, Donald, 1984. “Truth and meaning.” In Inquiries Into Truth and Interpretation, pp. 17–36. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Davidson, Donald, 1990. “The structure and content of truth.” Journal of Philosophy 87: 279–328.
———, 1996. “The folly of trying to define truth.” Journal of Philosophy 93: 263–78.
Dummett, Michael, 1978. “Truth.” In Truth and Other Enigmas, pp. 1–24. London: Duckworth.
———, 1981. Frege: Philosophy of Language, second edition. London: Duckworth.
———, 1991. The Logical Basis of Metaphysics. London: Duckworth.
———, 1993a. The Seas of Language. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
———, 1993b. “The source of the concept of truth.” In Dummett (1993a), pp. 188–201.
———, 1993c. “What is a theory of meaning? (II).” In Dummett (1993a), pp. 34–93.
Fine, Kit, 2007. Semantic Relationism. Oxford: Blackwell.
Frege, Gottlob, 1970. Translations from the Philosophical Writings of Gottlob Frege, second edition, edited by Peter Geach and Max Black. Oxford: Blackwell.
———, 1972. Conceptual Notation and Related Articles, translated and edited by Terrell Ward Bynum. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
———, 1979. Posthumous Writings, edited by Hans Hermes, Friedrich Kambartel, and Friedrich Kaulbach, translated by Peter Long and Roger White. Oxford: Basil Blackwell.
———, 1984. Collected Papers on Mathematics, Logic, and Philosophy, edited by Brian McGuiness. Oxford: Basil Blackwell.
———, 1997. The Frege Reader, edited by Michael Beaney. Oxford: Blackwell.
———, [AimCN] 1882. “On the aim of the conceptual notation.” Translated by Terrell Ward Bynum. In Frege (1972), pp. 90–100.
———, [Bg] 1879. “Begriffsschrift: A formula language modeled upon that of arithmetic, for pure thought.” Translated by Stefan Bauer-Mengelberg. In From Frege to Gödel: A Sourcebook in Mathematical Logic 1879–1931, edited by Jean van Heijenoort, pp. 5–82. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.
———, [BLC] 1880?. “Boole’s logical calculus and the concept-script.” In Frege (1979), pp. 9–46.
———, [BLF] 1882. “Boole’s logical formula-language and my concept-script.” In Frege (1979), pp. 47–52.
———, [CO] 1892. “On concept and object.” Translated by Peter Geach. In Frege (1984), pp. 182–94. Also in Frege (1997), pp. 181–93.
———, [CSM] 1892–95. “Comments on sense and meaning.” In Frege (1979), pp. 118–25. Also in Frege (1997), pp. 172–80.
———, [CT] 1923. “Compound thoughts.” Translated by Peter Geach and R. H. Stoothoff. In Frege (1984), pp. 390–406.
———, [FC] 1891. “Function and concept.” Translated by Peter Geach. In Frege (1984), pp. 137–56. Also in Frege (1997), pp. 130–48.
———, [FTA] 1885. “Formal theories of arithmetic.” Translated by E.-H. W. Kluge. In Frege (1984), pp. 112–21.
———, [Geo2] 1906. “On the foundations of geometry: Second series.” Translated by E.-H. W. Kluge. In Frege (1984), pp. 293–340.
———, [Gg] 2013. Basic Laws of Arithmetic, translated and edited by Philip A. Ebert and Marcus Rossberg. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
———, [Gl] 1953. The Foundations of Arithmetic, second, revised edition, translated by J. L. Austin. Oxford: Blackwell.
———, [IntLog] 1906. “Introduction to logic.” In Frege (1979), pp. 185–96; extracts in Frege (1997), pp. 293–98.
———, [Log79] 1879–1891. “Logic.” In Frege (1979), pp. 1–8.
———, [Log97] 1897. “Logic (1897).” In Frege (1979), pp. 126–51. Also in Frege (1997), pp. 227–50.
———, [MBLI] 1915. “My basic logical insights.” In Frege (1979), pp. 251–52. Also in Frege (1997), pp. 322–24.
———, [PCN] 1897. “On Mr. Peano’s conceptual notation and my own.” Translated by V. H. Dudman. In Frege (1984), pp. 234–48.
———, [PMC] 1980. Philosophical and Mathematical Correspondence, edited by Gottfried Gabriel, Hans Hermes, Friedrich Kambartel, Christian Thiel, Albert Veraart, and Brian McGuinness, translated by Hans Kaal. Oxford: Blackwell.
———, [Schr] 1895. “A critical elucidation of some points in E. Schröder, Vorlesungen über die Algebra der Logik.” In Frege (1984), pp. 210–28.
———, [SM] 1892. “On sense and meaning.” Translated by Max Black. In Frege (1984), pp. 157–77. Also in Frege (1997), pp. 151–71.
———, [Tht] 1918. “Thoughts.” Translated by Peter Geach and R. H. Stoothoff. In Frege (1984), pp. 351–72. Also in Frege (1997), pp. 325–45.
Geach, P. T., 1965. “Assertion.” Philosophical Review 74: 449–65.
Greimann, Dirk, 2015. “Frege’s performative argument against truth relativism.” Journal for the History of Analytical Philosophy 3(2): 1–17.
Heck, Richard Kimberly, 2012a. Reading Frege’s Grundgesetze. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Originally published under the name “Richard G. Heck, Jr”.
———, 2012b. “Solving Frege’s puzzle.” Journal of Philosophy 109: 74. Originally published under the name “Richard G. Heck, Jr”.
———, 2014. “Intuition and the substitution argument.” Analytic Philosophy 55: 1–30. Originally published under the name “Richard G. Heck, Jr”.
———, 2019. “Formal arithmetic before Grundgesetze.” In Essays on Frege’s Basic Laws of Arithmetic, edited by Philip A. Ebert and Marcus Rossberg, pp. 497–537. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Heck, Richard Kimberly and Robert C. May, 2006. “Frege’s contribution to philosophy of language.” In The Oxford Handbook of Philosophy of Language, edited by Barry C. Smith and Ernest Lepore, pp. 3–39. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Originally published under the name “Richard G. Heck, Jr”.
———, 2011. “The composition of thoughts.” Noûs 45: 126–66. Originally published under the name “Richard G. Heck, Jr”.
———, 2013. “The function is unsaturated.” In The Oxford Handbook of the History of Analytic Philosophy, edited by Michael Beaney, pp. 825–50. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Originally published under the name “Richard G. Heck, Jr”.
———, 2018. “Truth in Frege.” In The Oxford Handbook of Truth, edited by Michael Glanzberg, pp. 193–215. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Kemp, Gary, 1995. “Truth in Frege’s ‘law of truth’.” Synthese 105: 31–51.
Kneale, William and Martha Kneale, 1962. The Development of Logic. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Kremer, Michael, 2010. “Sense and reference: The origins and development of the distinction.” In The Cambridge Companion to Frege, edited by Michael Potter and Thomas Ricketts, pp. 220–92. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Larson, Richard and Gabriel Segal, 1995. Knowledge of Meaning. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press.
Linnebo, Øystein, 2003. “Frege’s conception of logic: From Kant to Grundgesetze.” Manuscrito 26: 235–52.
MacColl, Hugh, 1877. “The calculus of equivalent statements and integration limits.” Proceedings of the London Mathematical Society 9: 9–20.
———, 1880. “Symbolical reasoning.” Mind 5: 45–60.
Marcus, Ruth Barcan, 1995. “Modalities and intensional languages.” In Modalities: Philosophical Essays, pp. 3–23. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
May, Robert C., 2001. “Frege on identity statements.” In Semantic Interfaces: Reference, Anaphora and Aspect, edited by Carlo Cecchetto, Gennaro Chierchia, and Maria Teresa Guasti, pp. 1–50. Stanford: CSLI Publications.
———, 2008. “The invariance of sense.” Journal of Philosophy 103: 111–44.
———, 2012. “What Frege’s theory of identity is not.” Thought 1: 41–48.
———, 2018. “Logic as science.” In Eva Picardi on Language, Analysis and History, edited by Annalisa Coliva, Paolo Leonardi, and Sebastiano Moruzzi, pp. 113–60. London: Palgrave Macmillan.
Moore, G. E., 1953. Some Main Problems of Philosophy. London: Allen and Unwin.
Pedriali, Walter B., 2017. “The logical significance of assertion: Frege on the essence of logic.” Journal for the History of Analytical Philosophy 5(8): 1–22.
Picardi, Eva, 1996. “Frege’s anti-psychologism.” In Frege: Importance and Legacy, edited by Matthias Schirn, pp. 307–29. New York: de Gruyter.
Post, Emil, 1921. “Introduction to a general theory of elementary propositions.” American Journal of Mathematics 43: 163–85.
Proops, Ian, 1997. “The early Wittgenstein on logical assertion.” Philosophical Topics 25: 121–44.
Quine, W. V., 1953. “On what there is.” In From a Logical Point of View, pp. 1–18. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.
———, 1970. Philosophy of Logic, first edition. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Ricketts, Thomas, 1996. “Logic and truth in Frege.” Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society, Supplementary Volume 70: 121–40.
———, 1997. “Frege’s 1906 foray into meta-logic.” Philosophical Topics 25: 169–88.
Russell, Bertrand, 1903. The Principles of Mathematics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Schröder, Ernst, 1877. Der Operationskreis des Logikkalküls. Leipzig: Teubner.
———, 1880. “Review of Frege’s Conceptual Notation.” In Frege (1972), pp. 218–32.
Strawson, P. F., 1950. “Truth.” Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society, Supplementary Volume 24: 129–56.
Tarski, Alfred, 1956. “The concept of truth in formalized languages.” In Logic, Semantics, and Metamathematics, edited by John Corcoran, pp. 152–278. Indianapolis: Hackett.
Textor, Mark, 2010. “Frege on judging as acknowledging the truth.” Mind 119: 615–55.
Venn, John, 1894. Symbolic Logic, second edition. London: MacMillan.
———, 1880. “Review of Frege’s Conceptual Notation.” Mind : 297. Reprinted in Frege (1972), pp. 234–35.
Wiggins, David, 1980. “What would be a substantial theory of truth?” In Philosophical Subjects, edited by Zaak van Straaten, pp. 189–221. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Wittgenstein, Ludwig, 1961. Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.
———, 1979a. Notebooks: 1914–1916, second edition, edited by G. H. von Wright and G. E. M. Anscombe. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
———, 1979b. Wittgenstein’s Lectures, Cambridge, 1932–1935: From the Notes of Alice Ambrose and Margaret Macdonald, edited by Alice Ambrose. Amherst, NY: Prometheus.
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